Lu, J. et al. Mpox (formerly monkeypox): pathogenesis, prevention and treatment. Signal Transduct. Target Ther. 8, 458 (2023).
Lum, F.-M. et al. Monkeypox: disease epidemiology, host immunity and clinical interventions. Nat. Rev. Immunol. 22, 597–613 (2022).
Happi, C. et al. Urgent need for a non-discriminatory and non-stigmatizing nomenclature for monkeypox virus. PLoS Biol. 20, e3001769 (2022).
Zumla, A. et al. The 2024 public health emergency of international concern: a global failure to control Mpox. Am. J. Trop. Med Hyg. 112, 17–20 (2025).
Djuicy, D. D. et al. Molecular epidemiology of recurrent zoonotic transmission of mpox virus in West Africa. medRxiv 2024.06.18.24309115 https://doi.org/10.1101/2024.06.18.24309115 (2024).
Ndodo, N. et al. Distinct monkeypox virus lineages co-circulating in humans before 2022. Nat. Med 29, 2317–2324 (2023).
O’Toole, Á et al. APOBEC3 deaminase editing in mpox virus as evidence for sustained human transmission since at least 2016. Science (1979) 382, 595–600 (2023).
Parker, E. et al. Genomics reveals zoonotic and sustained human Mpox spread in West Africa. Nature https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-09128-2 (2025).
Bunge, E. M. et al. The changing epidemiology of human monkeypox—A potential threat? A systematic review. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis. 16, e0010141 (2022).
Yinka-Ogunleye, A. et al. Outbreak of human monkeypox in Nigeria in 2017–18: a clinical and epidemiological report. Lancet Infect. Dis. 19, 872–879 (2019).
Isidro, J. et al. Phylogenomic characterization and signs of microevolution in the 2022 multi-country outbreak of monkeypox virus. Nat. Med. 28, 1569–1572 (2022).
Sumner, R. P. et al. Attenuation of the 2022 global outbreak monkeypox virus relative to its clade IIb ancestor. bioRxiv 2025.02.27.640535 https://doi.org/10.1101/2025.02.27.640535 (2025).
Mizushima, D. et al. Prevalence of asymptomatic mpox among men who have sex with men, Japan, January–March 2023. Emerg. Infect. Dis. J. 29, 1872 (2023).
Accordini, S., Cordioli, M., Pomari, E., Tacconelli, E. & Castilletti, C. People with asymptomatic or unrecognised infection potentially contribute to monkeypox virus transmission. Lancet Microbe 4, e209 (2023).
Agustí, C. et al. Self-sampling monkeypox virus testing in high-risk populations, asymptomatic or with unrecognized Mpox, in Spain. Nat. Commun. 14, 5998 (2023).
Edouard, S. et al. Incidental diagnosis of mpox virus infection in patients undergoing sexually transmitted infection screening—findings from a study in France. Int. J. Infect. Dis. 143, 107009 (2024).
De Baetselier, I. et al. Retrospective detection of asymptomatic monkeypox virus infections among male sexual health clinic attendees in Belgium. Nat. Med. 28, 2288–2292 (2022).
Ferré, V. M. et al. Detection of monkeypox virus in anorectal swabs from asymptomatic men who have sex with men in a sexually transmitted infection screening program in Paris, France. Ann. Intern Med 175, 1491–1492 (2022).
Hampel, B. et al. Low prevalence of asymptomatic mpox in populations at high risk. Lancet Microbe 4, e856 (2023).
Mouro, M. & Duque, V. Asymptomatic transmission of human mpox. BMJ Case Rep. 17, e254305 (2024).
Matusali, G. et al. Asymptomatic Mpox virus infection in subjects presenting for MVA-BN vaccine. Clin. Infect. Dis. 77, 1483–1484 (2023).
Henry, S. et al. Serological response to Mpox and direct virus detection in asymptomatic patient prior to the first diagnosed case: a retrospective study of the 2022 montpellier epidemic. J. Med Virol. 97, e70365 (2025).
Ogale, Y. P. et al. Evidence of Mpox Virus Infection Among Persons Without Characteristic Lesions or Rash Presenting for First Dose of JYNNEOS Vaccine—District of Columbia, August 2022. Clin. Infect. Dis. 77, 298–302 (2023).
Reda, A., El-Qushayri, A. E. & Shah, J. Asymptomatic monkeypox infection: a call for greater control of infection and transmission. Lancet Microbe 4, e15–e16 (2023).
Taube, J. C., Rest, E. C., Lloyd-Smith, J. O. & Bansal, S. The global landscape of smallpox vaccination history and implications for current and future orthopoxvirus susceptibility: a modelling study. Lancet Infect. Dis. 23, 454–462 (2023).
Ge, Y. et al. Associations between the 2022 global mpox outbreak and multifaceted factors: A multi-geographical retrospective study. One Health 101224 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.onehlt.2025.101224 (2025).
Rimoin, A. W. et al. Major increase in human monkeypox incidence 30 years after smallpox vaccination campaigns cease in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 107, 16262–16267 (2010).
Gilchuk, I. et al. Cross-Neutralizing and Protective Human Antibody Specificities to Poxvirus Infections. Cell 167, 684–694.e9 (2016).
Freyn, A. W. et al. An mpox virus mRNA-lipid nanoparticle vaccine confers protection against lethal orthopoxviral challenge. Sci. Transl. Med 15, eadg3540 (2025).
Mucker, E. M. et al. Comparison of protection against mpox following mRNA or modified vaccinia Ankara vaccination in nonhuman primates. Cell 187, 5540–5553.e10 (2024).
Mengjun, L. et al. Bispecific antibodies targeting MPXV A29 and B6 demonstrate efficacy against MPXV infection. J. Virol. 0, e02320–e02324 (2025).
Kong, T. et al. Single-chain A35R-M1R-B6R trivalent mRNA vaccines protect mice against both mpox virus and vaccinia virus. EBioMedicine 109, (2024).
Tang, D. et al. Recombinant proteins A29L, M1R, A35R, and B6R vaccination protects mice from mpox virus challenge. Front Immunol Volume 14-2023, (2023).
Yu, H., Resch, W. & Moss, B. Poxvirus structural biology for application to vaccine design. Trends Immunol. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.it.2025.04.002 (2025).
Pauli, G. et al. Orthopox viruses: Infections in humans. Transfus. Med. hemotherapy 37, 351–364 (2010).
Manenti, A. et al. Evaluation of Monkeypox- and Vaccinia virus-neutralizing antibodies in human serum samples after vaccination and natural infection. Front Public Health Volume 11-2023, (2023).
WHO. Smallpox Eradication Programme – SEP (1966-1980). (2010).
Foege, W. Lessons and innovations from the West and Central African Smallpox Eradication Program. Vaccine 29, D10–D12 (2011).
WHO. Smallpox, Historic Milestone Underscores Urgent Need to Invest in Global Health Security and Universal Health Coverage.
Haeuser, E. et al. Global, regional, and national trends in routine childhood vaccination coverage from 1980 to 2023 with forecasts to 2030: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2023. The Lancet https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(25)01037-2 (2025).
Rosenthal, S., Merchlinsky, M., Kleppinger, C. & Goldenthal, K. Developing New Smallpox. Vaccines. Emerg. Infect. Dis. J. 7, 920 (2001).
Fenner, F. et al. Smallpox and Its Eradication (World Health Organization, 1988). https://iris.who.int/items/ba4ab312-1c43-4304-8235-969979499717.
Jacobs, B. L. et al. Vaccinia virus vaccines: Past, present and future. Antivir. Res 84, 1–13 (2009).
Edghill-Smith, Y. et al. Smallpox vaccine–induced antibodies are necessary and sufficient for protection against monkeypox virus. Nat. Med 11, 740–747 (2005).
Sanz-Muñoz, I. et al. Possible Mpox protection from smallpox. Vaccin.–Generated Antibodies Older Adults. Emerg. Infect. Dis. J. 29, 656 (2023).
Greenberg, R. N. et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled phase II trial investigating the safety and immunogenicity of modified vaccinia ankara smallpox vaccine (MVA-BN®) in 56-80-Year-Old Subjects. PLoS ONE 11, e0157335 (2016).
Zaeck, L. M. et al. Low levels of monkeypox virus-neutralizing antibodies after MVA-BN vaccination in healthy individuals. Nat. Med. 29, 270–278 (2023).
Priyamvada, L. et al. Serological responses to the MVA-based JYNNEOS monkeypox vaccine in a cohort of participants from the Democratic Republic of Congo. Vaccine 40, 7321–7327 (2022).
Marchi, S. et al. Evaluation of monkeypox- and vaccinia-virus neutralizing antibodies before and after smallpox vaccination: a sero-epidemiological study. J. Med. Virol. 96, e29728 (2024).
Hubert, M. et al. Complement-dependent mpox-virus-neutralizing antibodies in infected and vaccinated individuals. Cell Host Microbe 31, 937–948.e4 (2023).
Galetti, S. C. et al. Historic smallpox vaccination and Mpox cross-reactive immunity: Evidence from healthcare workers with childhood and adulthood exposures. Vaccine 46, 126661 (2025).
Li, E. et al. Duration of humoral immunity from smallpox vaccination and its cross-reaction with Mpox virus. Signal Transduct. Target Ther. 8, 350 (2023).
Marchi, S. et al. Correlation between microneutralization test and a multiplexed immunoassay for evaluation of monkeypox and vaccinia virus antibodies before and after smallpox vaccination. Front Immunol. ume, 16–2025 (2025).
Wayengera, M. et al. Mpox epidemics: a call to restore humanity’s lost herd immunity to Orthopoxviruses. Viruses 17, (2025).
Satapathy, P. et al. Potentially asymptomatic infection of Monkeypox virus: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Vaccines (Basel) 10, 2083 (2022).
Abdullahi, A. et al. SARS-COV-2 antibody responses to AZD1222 vaccination in West Africa. Nat. Commun. 13, 6131 (2022).
Abdullahi, A. et al. SARS-CoV-2 infection imprints neutralising antibody responses in the absence of vaccination. ResearchSquare https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6347062/v1 (2025).
Ruis, C. et al. A systematic nomenclature for mpox viruses causing outbreaks with sustained human-to-human transmission. Nat. Med. 31, 2854–2858 (2025).
Paredes, M. I. et al. Underdetected dispersal and extensive local transmission drove the 2022 mpox epidemic. Cell 187, 1374–1386.e13 (2024).
Figgins, M. D. & Bedford, T. Inferring variant-specific effective reproduction numbers from combined case and sequencing data. medRxiv 2021.12.09.21267544 https://doi.org/10.1101/2021.12.09.21267544 (2024).
Guzzetta, G. et al. The decline of the 2022 Italian mpox epidemic: Role of behavior changes and control strategies. Nat. Commun. 15, 2283 (2024).
Tran-Kiem, C. & Bedford, T. Estimating the reproduction number and transmission heterogeneity from the size distribution of clusters of identical pathogen sequences. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 121, e2305299121 (2024).
Henderson, D. A. The eradication of smallpox – An overview of the past. Future Vaccin. 29, D7–D9 (2011).
Crandell, J. et al. The impact of orthopoxvirus vaccination and Mpox infection on cross-protective immunity: a multicohort observational study. Lancet Microbe https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lanmic.2025.101098 (2025).
Mitjà, O., Watson-Jones, D., Choi, E. M., Jalloh, M. B. & Sahr, F. Clade IIb mpox outbreak in Sierra Leone. Lancet 405, 2274–2275 (2025).
Ennis, F. A., Cruz, J., Demkowicz, W. E. Jr, Rothman, A. L. & McClain, D. J. Primary induction of human CD8+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes and interferon-γ-producing T cells after smallpox vaccination. J. Infect. Dis. 185, 1657–1659 (2002).
Orr, N. et al. Clinical and immune responses after revaccination of israeli adults with the lister strain of vaccinia virus. J. Infect. Dis. 190, 1295–1302 (2004).
Hammarlund, E. et al. Duration of antiviral immunity after smallpox vaccination. Nat. Med 9, 1131–1137 (2003).
Hsieh, S.-M., Pan, S.-C., Chen, S.-Y., Huang, P.-F. & Chang, S.-C. Age distribution for T cell reactivity to vaccinia virus in a healthy population. Clin. Infect. Dis. 38, 86–89 (2004).
Taub, D. D. et al. Immunity from smallpox vaccine persists for decades: a longitudinal study. Am. J. Med 121, 1058–1064 (2008).
Zhao, R. et al. Two noncompeting human neutralizing antibodies targeting MPXV B6 show protective effects against orthopoxvirus infections. Nat. Commun. 15, 4660 (2024).
Giorgi, F. M., Pozzobon, D., Di Meglio, A. & Mercatelli, D. Genomic and transcriptomic analysis of the recent Mpox outbreak. Vaccine 42, 1841–1849 (2024).
Crossley, L. et al. Susceptibility and transmission of mpox virus infection in brown rats (Rattus norvegicus). J. Gen. Virol. 106, (2025).
Falendysz, E. A., Lopera, J. G., Rocke, T. E. & Osorio, J. E. Monkeypox virus in animals: Current knowledge of viral transmission and pathogenesis in wild animal reservoirs and captive animal models. Viruses 15, 905 (2023).
Forni, D., Cagliani, R., Molteni, C., Clerici, M. & Sironi, M. Monkeypox virus: the changing facets of a zoonotic pathogen. Infect., Genet. Evolution 105, 105372 (2022).
Patrono, L. V. et al. Monkeypox virus emergence in wild chimpanzees reveals distinct clinical outcomes and viral diversity. Nat. Microbiol. 5, 955–965 (2020).
Clark, J. et al. Domestic risk factors for increased rodent abundance in a Lassa fever endemic region of rural Upper Guinea. Sci. Rep. 11, 20698 (2021).
Olayemi, A. et al. New hosts of the lassa virus. Sci. Rep. 6, 25280 (2016).
Agbonlahor, D. E., Akpede, G. O., Happi, C. T. & Tomori, O. 52 years of lassa fever outbreaks in Nigeria, 1969–2020: an epidemiologic analysis of the temporal and spatial trends. Am. J. Trop. Med Hyg. 105, 974–985 (2021).
Bonwitt, J. et al. At Home with Mastomys and Rattus: Human-Rodent Interactions and Potential for Primary Transmission of Lassa Virus in Domestic Spaces. Am. Soc. Tropical Med. Hyg. 96, 935–943 (2017).
Doohan, P. et al. Lassa fever outbreaks, mathematical models, and disease parameters: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Glob. Health 12, e1962–e1972 (2024).
Mariën, J. et al. Serosurveillance Identifies an Endemic Hotspot of Lassa Fever in Faranah, Upper Guinea. J. Infect. Dis. jiaf308 https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiaf308 (2025).
Garry, R. F. Lassa fever – the road ahead. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 21, 87–96 (2023).
Herrera, B. B. et al. Pre-pandemic cross-reactive antibody and cellular responses against SARS-CoV-2 among female sex workers in Dakar, Senegal. Front Public Health 13, 1522733 (2025).
Ceccarelli, G., Francesco, B., Fabio, S., Marta, G. & Ciccozzi, M. Helminthiasis and mpox vaccination: challenges in Sub-Saharan Africa. Infect. Dis. 57, 301–303 (2025).
Cohen, M. E., Xiao, Y., Eisenberg, R. J., Cohen, G. H. & Isaacs, S. N. Antibody against extracellular vaccinia virus (EV) protects mice through complement and Fc receptors. PLoS ONE 6, e20597 (2011).
Ren, Z. et al. Identification of mpox M1R and B6R monoclonal and bispecific antibodies that efficiently neutralize authentic mpox virus. Emerg. Microbes Infect. 13, 2401931 (2024).
Laidlaw Stephen et al. Detection of mpox and other orthopoxviruses using a lateral flow device as a point-of-care diagnostic. Microbiol Spectr. 13, e02456–24 (2025).
Cavuto, M. L. et al. Portable molecular diagnostic platform for rapid point-of-care detection of mpox and other diseases. Nat. Commun. 16, 2875 (2025).
Abdullahi, A. et al. Hepatitis B Virus (HBV) infection and re-activation during Nucleos(t)ide reverse transcriptase inhibitor–sparing antiretroviral therapy in a high–HBV endemicity setting. Open Forum Infect. Dis. 5, ofy251 (2018).
Yates, J. L. et al. Development of a novel serological assay for the detection of mpox infection in vaccinated populations. J. Med Virol. 95, e29134 (2023).
Kayuni, S. A. et al. Prospective pilot study on the relationship between seminal HIV-1 shedding and genital schistosomiasis in men receiving antiretroviral therapy along Lake Malawi. Sci. Rep. 13, 14154 (2023).
Abdullahi, A. et al. Limited emergence of resistance to integrase strand transfer inhibitors (INSTIs) in ART-experienced participants failing dolutegravir-based antiretroviral therapy: a cross-sectional analysis of a Northeast Nigerian cohort. J. Antimicrobial Chemother. 78, 2000–2007 (2023).
Abdullahi, A. et al. A detailed characterization of drug resistance during darunavir/ritonavir monotherapy highlights a high barrier to the emergence of resistance mutations in protease but identifies alternative pathways of resistance. J. Antimicrobial Chemother. 79, 339–348 (2024).
Salako, A. et al. Safety and immunogenicity of fractional COVID-19 vaccine doses in Nigerian adults: a randomized non-inferiority trial. Sci. Rep. 15, 27614 (2025).
FMOH. Nigeria: National Guidelines for HIV Counselling and Testing. https://www.medbox.org/document/nigeria-national-guidelines-for-hiv-counselling-and-testing (2011).
Iriemenam, N. C. et al. Evaluation of the Nigeria national HIV rapid testing algorithm. PLOS Glob. Public Health 2, e0001077 (2022).
Cohn, H. et al. Mpox vaccine and infection-driven human immune signatures: an immunological analysis of an observational study. Lancet Infect. Dis. 23, 1302–1312 (2023).
Otter, A. D. et al. Monkeypox virus-infected individuals mount comparable humoral immune responses as Smallpox-vaccinated individuals. Nat. Commun. 14, 5948 (2023).
Jones, S. et al. Assessment of MpoxPlex, a high-throughput and multiplexed immunoassay: a diagnostic accuracy study. Lancet Microbe 6, (2025).
Fantin, R. F. & Coelho, C. H. Human antibody responses to circulating monkeypox virus emphasise the need for the first mpox-specific vaccine. Lancet Microbe 5, e204–e205 (2024).
Masirika, L. M. et al. Serological evidence of clade Ib Mpox transmission by sex workers and within household in South Kivu, DRC. Nat. Commun. 16, 7056 (2025).
Xiong, X. et al. A thermostable, closed SARS-CoV-2 spike protein trimer. Nat. Struct. Mol. Biol. 27, 934–941 (2020).
Montefiori, D. C. et al. Magnitude and breadth of the neutralizing antibody response in the RV144 and Vax003 HIV-1 vaccine efficacy trials. J. Infect. Dis. 206, 431–441 (2012).
Huang, Y., Gilbert, P. B., Montefiori, D. C. & Self, S. G. Simultaneous evaluation of the magnitude and breadth of a left- and right-censored multivariate response. Application HIV Vaccin. Dev. Stat. Biopharm. Res. 1, 81–91 (2009).
Gilbert, P. et al. Magnitude and breadth of a nonprotective neutralizing antibody response in an efficacy trial of a candidate HIV-1 gp120 vaccine. J. Infect. Dis. 202, 595–605 (2010).
Einhauser, S. et al. Longitudinal effects of SARS-CoV-2 breakthrough infection on imprinting of neutralizing antibody responses. EBioMedicine 110, 105438 (2024).
Gill, M. S. et al. Improving Bayesian population dynamics inference: a coalescent-based model for multiple loci. Mol. Biol. Evol. 30, 713–724 (2013).
Abdullahi, A. et al. Performance of SARS COV-2 IgG Anti-N as an independent marker of exposure to SARS COV-2 in an unvaccinated west African population. Am. J. Trop. Med Hyg. 109, 890–894 (2023).