Crow, M. K. Pathogenesis of systemic lupus erythematosus: risks, mechanisms and therapeutic targets. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 82, 999–1014 (2023).
Schwartz, N., Stock, A. D. & Putterman, C. Neuropsychiatric lupus: new mechanistic insights and future treatment directions. Nat. Rev. Rheumatol. 15, 137–152 (2019).
Feng, M. et al. Clinical features and mortality in Chinese with lupus nephritis and neuropsychiatric lupus: A 124-patient study. J. Res. Med. Sci. 19, 414–419 (2014).
Curiel, R., Akin, E. A., Beaulieu, G., DePalma, L. & Hashefi, M. PET/CT imaging in systemic lupus erythematosus. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1228, 71–80 (2011).
Ocampo-Piraquive, V., Nieto-Aristizábal, I., Cañas, C. A. & Tobón, G. J. Mortality in systemic lupus erythematosus: causes, predictors and interventions. Expert Rev. Clin. Immunol. 14, 1043–1053 (2018).
Fan, Y. & Pedersen, O. Gut microbiota in human metabolic health and disease. Nat. Rev. Microbiol. 19, 55–71 (2021).
Zhang, X., Chen, B. D., Zhao, L. D. & Li, H. The gut microbiota: emerging evidence in autoimmune diseases. Trends Mol. Med. 26, 862–873 (2020).
Chen, Y. et al. Gut microbiota in systemic lupus erythematosus: a fuse and a solution. J. Autoimmun. 132, 102867 (2022).
Ma, Y. et al. Lupus gut microbiota transplants cause autoimmunity and inflammation. Clin. Immunol. 233, 108892 (2021).
Hevia, A. et al. Intestinal dysbiosis associated with systemic lupus erythematosus. mBio 5, e01548–01514 (2014).
Lu, R. & Luo, X. M. The role of gut microbiota in different murine models of systemic lupus erythematosus. Autoimmunity 57, 2378876 (2024).
Castells-Nobau, A., Mayneris-Perxachs, J. & Fernández-Real, J. M. Unlocking the mind-gut connection: impact of human microbiome on cognition. Cell Host Microbe 32, 1248–1263 (2024).
Li, R. et al. The brain-gut-bone axis in neurodegenerative diseases: insights, challenges, and future prospects. Adv. Sci. 11, e2307971 (2024).
Xiong, R. G. et al. The role of gut microbiota in anxiety, depression, and other mental disorders as well as the protective effects of dietary components. Nutrients 15, 3258 (2023).
Zhang, H. et al. Is anxiety and depression transmissible? Depressed mother rats transmit anxiety- and depression-like phenotypes to cohabited rat pups through gut microbiota assimilation. J. Affect. Disord. 366, 124–135 (2024).
Aringer, M. et al. 2019 European League Against Rheumatism/American College of Rheumatology Classification Criteria for Systemic Lupus Erythematosus. Arthritis Rheumatol. 71, 1400–1412 (2019).
The American College of Rheumatology nomenclature and case definitions for neuropsychiatric lupus syndromes. Arthritis Rheum. 42, 599–608 (1999).
Morse, H. C. et al. Abnormalities induced by the mutant gene Ipr: expansion of a unique lymphocyte subset. J. Immunol. 129, 2612–2615 (1982).
Theofilopoulos, A. N. & Dixon, F. J. Murine models of systemic lupus erythematosus. Adv. Immunol. 37, 269–390 (1985).
Pan, R. Y. et al. Intermittent fasting protects against Alzheimer’s disease in mice by altering metabolism through remodeling of the gut microbiota. Nat. Aging 2, 1024–1039 (2022).
Guo, X. et al. Chiral nanoparticle-remodeled gut microbiota alleviates neurodegeneration via the gut-brain axis. Nat. Aging 3, 1415–1429 (2023).
Han, X. et al. Neuronal NR4A1 deficiency drives complement-coordinated synaptic stripping by microglia in a mouse model of lupus. Signal. Transduct. Target Ther. 7, 50 (2022).
Luo, Z. et al. Limosilactobacillus reuteri in immunomodulation: molecular mechanisms and potential applications. Front. Immunol. 14, 1228754 (2023).
Li, M. et al. Gut microbiota metabolite indole-3-acetic acid maintains intestinal epithelial homeostasis through mucin sulfation. Gut Microbes 16, 2377576 (2024).
Dilimulati, D. et al. Ketogenic diet modulates neuroinflammation via metabolites from Lactobacillus reuteri after repetitive mild traumatic brain injury in adolescent mice. Cell Mol. Neurobiol. 43, 907–923 (2023).
Li, H. et al. Gut microbiota-derived indole-3-acetic acid suppresses high myopia progression by promoting type I collagen synthesis. Cell Discov. 10, 89 (2024).
Li, M. et al. Aged gut microbiota contributes to cognitive impairment and hippocampal synapse loss in mice. Aging Cell 24, e70064 (2025).
Bahman, F. et al. Aryl hydrocarbon receptor: current perspectives on key signaling partners and immunoregulatory role in inflammatory diseases. Front. Immunol. 15, 1421346 (2024).
Huang, W. et al. The aryl hydrocarbon receptor in immune regulation and autoimmune pathogenesis. J. Autoimmun. 138, 103049 (2023).
Zhou, Y. et al. The role of the indoles in microbiota-gut-brain axis and potential therapeutic targets: a focus on human neurological and neuropsychiatric diseases. Neuropharmacology 239, 109690 (2023).
Coretti, L., Buommino, E. & Lembo, F. The aryl hydrocarbon receptor pathway: a linking bridge between the gut microbiome and neurodegenerative diseases. Front. Cell Neurosci. 18, 1433747 (2024).
Barroso, A., Mahler, J. V., Fonseca-Castro, P. H. & Quintana, F. J. The aryl hydrocarbon receptor and the gut-brain axis. Cell Mol. Immunol. 18, 259–268 (2021).
Zhang, Y. et al. AhR agonist tapinarof ameliorates lupus autoimmunity by suppressing Tfh cell differentiation via regulation of the JAK2-STAT3 signaling pathway. Immun. Inflamm. Dis. 11, e903 (2023).
Yan, B. et al. Spermidine protects intestinal mucosal barrier function in mice colitis via the AhR/Nrf2 and AhR/STAT3 signaling pathways. Int. Immunopharmacol. 119, 110166 (2023).
Braniste, V. et al. The gut microbiota influences blood-brain barrier permeability in mice. Sci. Transl. Med. 6, 263ra158 (2014).
Fröhlich, E. E. et al. Cognitive impairment by antibiotic-induced gut dysbiosis: Analysis of gut microbiota-brain communication. Brain Behav. Immun. 56, 140–155 (2016).
Ahrne, S. & Hagslatt, M. L. Effect of lactobacilli on paracellular permeability in the gut. Nutrients 3, 104–117 (2011).
Wang, L. et al. Current research progress, opportunities, and challenges of Limosillactobacillus reuteri-based probiotic dietary strategies. Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 65, 3607–3627 (2024).
Mu, Q. et al. Control of lupus nephritis by changes of gut microbiota. Microbiome 5, 73 (2017).
Zegarra-Ruiz, D. F. et al. A Diet-sensitive commensal lactobacillus strain mediates TLR7-dependent systemic autoimmunity. Cell Host Microbe 25, 113–127.e116 (2019).
Loh, J. S. et al. Microbiota-gut-brain axis and its therapeutic applications in neurodegenerative diseases. Signal. Transduct. Target Ther. 9, 37 (2024).
Ahmed, H. et al. Microbiota-derived metabolites as drivers of gut-brain communication. Gut Microbes 14, 2102878 (2022).
Li, S. et al. Quinic acid alleviates high-fat diet-induced neuroinflammation by inhibiting DR3/IKK/NF-κB signaling via gut microbial tryptophan metabolites. Gut Microbes 16, 2374608 (2024).
Lin, Y. T. et al. Indole-3 acetic acid increased risk of impaired cognitive function in patients receiving hemodialysis. Neurotoxicology 73, 85–91 (2019).
Nikolopoulos, D. et al. Microglia activation in the presence of intact blood-brain barrier and disruption of hippocampal neurogenesis via IL-6 and IL-18 mediate early diffuse neuropsychiatric lupus. Ann. Rheum. Dis. 82, 646–657 (2023).
Burek, M. et al. Kidney ischemia/reperfusion injury induces changes in the drug transporter expression at the blood-brain barrier in vivo and in vitro. Front. Physiol. 11, 569881 (2020).
Ma, N., He, T., Johnston, L. J. & Ma, X. Host-microbiome interactions: the aryl hydrocarbon receptor as a critical node in tryptophan metabolites to brain signaling. Gut Microbes 11, 1203–1219 (2020).
Kim, H. et al. Microbiome-derived indole-3-lactic acid reduces amyloidopathy through aryl-hydrocarbon receptor activation. Brain Behav. Immun. 122, 568–582 (2024).
Wang, Y. et al. Microglial aryl hydrocarbon receptor enhances phagocytic function via SYK and promotes remyelination in the cuprizone mouse model of demyelination. J. Neuroinflammation 20, 83 (2023).
Zhou, Y. et al. Dynamic changes of activated AHR in microglia and astrocytes in the substantia nigra-striatum system in an MPTP-induced Parkinson’s disease mouse model. Brain Res. Bull. 176, 174–183 (2021).
Addi, T. et al. Mechanisms of tissue factor induction by the uremic toxin indole-3 acetic acid through aryl hydrocarbon receptor/nuclear factor-kappa B signaling pathway in human endothelial cells. Arch. Toxicol. 93, 121–136 (2019).
Wu, D. et al. Activation of aryl hydrocarbon receptor induces vascular inflammation and promotes atherosclerosis in apolipoprotein E-/- mice. Arter. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 31, 1260–1267 (2011).
Liu, H., Zhou, Y. C. & Song, W. Involvement of IL-10R/STAT3 pathway in amyloid β clearance by microlgia in Alzheimer’s disease. Int. Immunopharmacol. 101, 108263 (2021).
Xu, K. et al. HMGB1/STAT3/p65 axis drives microglial activation and autophagy exert a crucial role in chronic Stress-Induced major depressive disorder. J. Adv. Res. 59, 79–96 (2024).
Li, X. et al. The binding of PKCε and MEG2 to STAT3 regulates IL-6-mediated microglial hyperalgesia during inflammatory pain. FASEB J. 38, e23590 (2024).
Han, C. et al. HIPK2 mediates M1 polarization of microglial cells via STAT3: a new mechanism of depression-related neuroinflammation. J. Cell Physiol. 239, e30994 (2024).
Zheng, Z. V. et al. Novel role of STAT3 in microglia-dependent neuroinflammation after experimental subarachnoid haemorrhage. Stroke Vasc. Neurol. 7, 62–70 (2022).